Learning Principles and Theories
Introduction
With the ever-evolving landscape of education and training, the concept of learning has undergone a significant transformation. Emphasising individual needs and preferences, learner-centric approaches have emerged as pivotal drivers for the introduction of on-demand interactive resources. ASPYRE self-directed resources allow learners the flexibility of choice on what, when, where, and how they learn. Below are crucial learning principles that serve as the foundation for our resource design.
Self-directed Learning
Many learners today enjoy the flexibility of online learning which offers them the opportunity to take control of their learning journey. These learners will excel in self-directed learning, which Knowles (1975) defines as one in which "individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes". Self-directed learners are more likely to succeed when they have the freedom to choose what, when, where, and also how they learn, because self-directed learning aligns with the human natural psychological development: "as university students mature, they develop their ability to take increasing responsibility for our own lives – to become increasingly self-directed" (Knowles, 1975, as cited in Smith, 2020).
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Our on-demand interactive resources align seamlessly with this principle, providing a diverse array of content and flexible access. Learners can access our resources on both computer and mobile devices at any time as long as they have bandwidth. They have the choice of completing a lesson or a section of the lesson depending on their needs and availability. They can select whichever learning points to explore and skip those that they are already skilled at. This approach places learners in control of their own learning.
Theory of Constructivism in
Self-directed Learning
When learners engage with or interact with the learning materials, they progressively build their understanding to construct their knowledge autonomously, fostering deeper comprehension and meaningful learning experiences. Constructivism is particularly congruent with the notion of self-direction in independent learning and individual construction of meaning in one's learning (Philip, 2016). Vygotsky postulates that knowledge and concept application in problem-solving form the basis of the learning process (as cited in Picciano, 2017, p. 166). Similarly, research has proven that when learners solve real-world problems, they actively engage in the construction of meaningful knowledge (Wanniarachchi, 2016).
In line with these principles, our resources are punctuated with concept application and problem-solving exercises to help students hone their study skills. By fostering an interactive and dynamic learning experience, we aim to empower students to take ownership of their learning and develop a deeper, more enduring understanding of the subjects they study.
Cognitive Theories
Does the brain work harder to process multimodal learning resources? Our brains are naturally adapted to handle visual information differently from textual, auditory, and sound data. This distinction is validated by Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) scans, which confirm a dual processing system for visuals and text/auditory content, suggesting the potential for enhanced learning through their simultaneous use (CISCO, 2018).
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However, it is essential to bear in mind that the human brain has a limited capacity to manage new information simultaneously, despite its ability to handle extensive volumes of pre-existing knowledge (Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation [CESE], 2017). In simple terms, when a student's working memory becomes overwhelmed, there is a potential for them to struggle with comprehending the presented material, leading to slow or inefficient learning.
ASPYRE resources are meticulously designed with high-clarity instructional design to avoid imposing extraneous cognitive load on learners (see Table 1). Each exercise and activity is accompanied by clear and easy-to-follow instructions, an intuitive interface, and highly structured resources organised in chunks for easy consumption.
Table 1: Types of Cognitive Load
Multimedia and Digital Resource Principles
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Interactive
Interactive resources are designed to encourage students to engage with the content. Scaffolded multimedia content complements text and documents in the learning sequence, enhancing the self-directed learning experience. Incorporating multimedia elements into educational materials is a crucial aspect of student-centered education, fostering increased interest and engagement in learning (Leow & Neo, 2014, p. 107). In another study, students affirmed that multimedia learning elements significantly contributed to their understanding and retention of learning points (Shankey et al., 2010, p. 852).
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For these reasons, our interactive resources include various multimodal learning objects interspersed throughout every lesson. Some of these learning objects include:
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Navigation between items/objects
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Simulations
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Fill-in-the blank/ordering activities
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Quizzes
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Info-graphic hotspots
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Drag and Drop activities
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Decision trees or branching scenarios
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Bite-sized videos
2. Visually
attractive
To capture the attention of learners, resources should be visually appealing. Content should contain just enough text to convey the learning point, adhering to the principle of "Less is more." According to Mayer's Multimedia Principle, "people learn better from words and pictures than from words alone" (Mayer, 2002). Images, videos, and animations need to be relevant, high quality, and eye-catching.
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In our resources, vibrant images with interactive infographics are incorporated, providing learners with an engaging and visually rich experience.
3. Bite-sized
chunks
Bite-sized learning involves breaking down information into small, manageable chunks, empowering learners to grasp and retain key concepts. It is a crucial concept for online learning as learners today need information they can consume quickly and directly. Therefore, our resources are tailored to be easily digestible and feature “study-break indicators”, enabling learners to seamlessly resume lessons where they left off. Additionally, this learning method helps prevent mental exhaustion, boredom, and burnout. In fact, Tompkins recommends “using an interval of intense focus for approximately 15 to 20 minutes” for each bite-size lesson, as “physiologically, your neurons are keen and alert for no more than 20 consecutive minutes (as cited in Kelly, 2011, p.1).
For this reason, our resources are organised in chunks, allowing learners the flexibility to complete a couple of sections at a time if they prefer.
4. Scaffolded
Scaffolded learning resources that progressively transition from easy to challenging play a pivotal role in effective self-directed learning. Bruner’s theory on scaffolding in learning suggests that when faced with new materials, learning should follow a progression from simple to challenging (McLeod, 2023). The gradual progression of information and learning points offers learners a structured path to build their knowledge and skills, ensuring a gradual and manageable ascent towards more complex concepts and tasks.
Our designers have organised the content of each lesson so that different levels of support are dynamically provided to learners. This creates a structured learning pathway for learners to build knowledge.
5. Intuitive
Interphase
Not all learners may be equally comfortable with technology. Therefore, it is crucial that the online resource interface or platform is not only intuitive but also user-friendly. Each learning object and activity is meticulously designed to ensure flexible accessibility for all learners.
Furthermore, our lessons undergo beta testing by current university students and alumni. This process ensures that the content is well-scaffolded, and the flow of learning points is both natural and easy to comprehend.
6. Formative
Assessment
& Feedback
Effective learning requires feedback and assessment. According to Watling (2014), “feedback promises to provide motivation and direction for learning, guiding and shaping how learners make sense of the experiences … and offering them a path forward”. Therefore, it can represent one of the best opportunities for improvement. Our on-demand resources provide instant feedback on exercises and quizzes, complete with explanations for incorrect answers. This feature empowers learners to gauge their understanding and monitor their progress. In addition to in-lesson exercises, each session concludes with an end-of-lesson quiz for a comprehensive knowledge check, which reinforces key learning points.
Conclusion
At ASPYRE, the creation of our learner-centric interactive resources is informed by online self-directed learning principles, cognitive theories, and multimedia principles. This approach is tailored to deliver a learning experience that is not only flexible and personalised but also deeply engaging. In response to the evolving educational landscape, the integration of these principles into our resources aims to empower today's learners, enabling them to achieve their goals and acquire the necessary academic literacy knowledge and skills to excel in their higher education studies.
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By ASPYRE
10 June 2024
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Center for Education Statistics and Evaluation. (2017). Cognitive load theory: Research that teachers really
need to understand. https://education.nsw.gov.au/content/dam/main-education/about-
us/educational-data/cese/2017-cognitive-load-theory.pdf
Mayer, R. E. (2002). Multimedia Learning (3rd ed.) Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Mcleod, S. (2023, June 14). Jerome Bruner’s theory of learning and cognitive development.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/bruner.html
Kelly, R. (2011). Brain-Based Online Learning Design.
https://dadapps.kfupm.edu.sa/Newsletters/OnlineClassroom/Year2011/OC1111.pdf
Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning. Association Press. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED114653
Leow, F. T., & Neo, M. (2014). Interactive multimedia learning: Innovating classroom education in a
Malaysian university. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology-TOJET, 13(2), 99-110.
Philip, C. C. (1989). Constructivism and the study of self-direction in adult learning. Studies in the
Education of Adults, 21(2), 95-116, DOI: 10.1080/02660830.1989.11730524
Picciano, A. G. (2017). Theories and frameworks for online education: Seeking an integrated model.
Online Learning, 21(3), 166-190. doi: 10.24059/olj.v21i3.1225
Sankey, M., Birch, D., & Gardiner, M. W. (2010). Engaging students through multimodal learning
environments: The journey continues. Proceedings of the 27th Australasian Society for Computers
in Learning in Tertiary Education, 852-863.
Smith. M. (2021, April 8). Malcolm Knowles, informal adult education, self-direction and andragogy.
https://infed.org/malcolm-knowles-informal-adult-education-self-direction-and-andragogy/
Wanniarachchi, N. (2016). Using a constructivist approach to develop self-learning materials and promote
learner engagement for out-of-school children in Sri Lanka.
https://oasis.col.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/dfdd1950-b7f1-4daf-b4fc-6650966e7ea4/content
Watling, C. J. (2014). Unfulfilled promise, untapped potential: Feedback at the crossroads. Medical
Teacher, 36(8), 692–697. https://doi-org.torrens.idm.oclc.org/10.3109/0142159X.2014.889812
References
Yvonne Liaw, MYS
Beta Tester
University of New South Wales Alumna
"The course offers excellent instructions on how assignments should be written to ensure better understanding for learners. All the information was precise and well-explained. Visuals provided offered step-by-step information which made the course easy to follow along. Would highly recommend these resources for fresh university students who require a refresher course on assignment-writing."
Natalie Natasha Michelin, SG
Beta Tester
University of Melbourne Alumna
"Overall the interface is really intuitive and very easy to use, even for a first-timer. The interface is visually friendly and doesn't feel too wordy or condensed with text. The content is well-structured and the periodic exercises helped me to maintain my engagement. I really appreciated that most of the exercises had explanations for wrong answers."
Celine L. Sze Ling, AU
Beta Tester
Current Student and Teacher Associate, Monash University
“Very nice user interface. Feels modern and succinct. Not wordy (to the point), so I could quickly go through the content. The course is interactive, I’m not just reading the whole time, but am made to use my brain. Explanation is given as to why other answers are wrong, helps me understand which parts to pay attention to. From the resources, I learned the use for different text types, like business reports, instead of just learning how to write report.”